Minggu, 03 Juni 2012

Pricing Transfer and International Taxation

Transfer prices may be based on the cost of the difference of the increase or a price. Environmental influences over prices caused to transfer some questions about the methodology of the determination of the price. The principle or price antarperusahaan beseem transfer transactions with supposes that happen antarpihak unrelated instimewa in a competitive market.

Early concept
Complexity legal and rules specifying taxes to foreign companies and profit generated abroad in fact taken from some basic concepts. This concept includes instilah neutrality tax and equity tax. Neutrality tax means that have no influence ( neuter ) of the decision allocation of resources. In other words decision business propelled by fundamental economic seoperti level of rewards and not tax consideration. Equity tax mean wajub tax face a situation similar should pay taxes the same , but there are disapproval antarbagaimana interpret this concept. 

Transfer pricing in the practice of taxation of international
In principle practice transfer pricing ( with prices not equal to the market price ) can be driven by tax motive or instead of taxation ( non-tax motive ). Various studies beyond indonesia show it ( carson 1979 , ; vaitson ; 1974 in caves ; 1996 ). Motivation taxes on practices transfer pricing executed with wherever possible move income to a country for to the tax lowest or minimum. One form transferee income e.g. in shape payment royalty because with great scarcity of standard price ( of tariff ) market over royalty very hard for administration tax about it. Kopits ( in caves ; 1996 ) declaring that least 13 % payment royalty from state bcrkcmhang ( to the developed world ) a transformation royalty be dividends. Next , with respect to goods price ( of ) the input of production lecras ( in caves ; 1996 ) declaring that based on the study 1985 multinationals operating in. More easily level autonomy members multinationals at overseas the higher utilization strategy transfer pricing. Becomes less menentu-nya environment operation member of the company the more significant portion export sales than domestic sales and higher earnings potential then motivation taxes on transfer pricing more extensive. Transfer pricing problem is too regardless of phenomena business big companies in multi unit will expand business abroad at mengoprasikan their business in decentralization and implement concept cpst-reveneu or concept corporate profit center. Ideally , concept decentralized profit center was also device that could measuring and evaluate performance of which also one aims management and motivation management units multinationals concerned in achieving the purposes of the company. 

Purpose of transfer pricing
In general , purpose quotations transfer is to transmits data financial among departments or divisi-diisi company and as they were mutually uses goods and services each other ( henry simamora , 1999 : 273 ) besides the purpose ; transfer pricing sometimes used for evaluate division and motivate manager division division the seller and buyer toward decisions harmounious with purpose company as a whole. Transfer a pricing system should satisfy three objectives : acurate performance evaluation , goal congruence , and preservation of divisional autonomy ( joshua ronen and george mckinney , 1970 : 100-101 ). While in scope multinational corporations , transfer pricing used for , minimizing taxes and duties which they secrete world-wide transfer pricing can effect overalls corporate incame taxes. Particulary .this is true for multinational corporations ( hansen and mowen , 1996 : 496 ).

Transfer to a methodology the determination of the priceTransfer prices may be based on the cost of the difference of the increase or a price. Environmental influences over prices caused to transfer some questions about the methodology of the determination of the price. The principle or price antarperusahaan beseem transfer transactions with supposes that happen antarpihak unrelated instimewa in a competitive market .
According to the law on income tax as. guiler methods by :
1. A method of uncontrolled price equivalent
This method of transfer of price based on determined with reference to the price used in a transaction equivalent between company that independent or equivalents of the company to a third party are not related 
2 .A method of transactions uncontrolled equivalent
This method applied to transfer assets intangible. This method acknowledges royalty reference level with reference to uncontrolled transaction in which an intangible asset of the same or similar diverted. As a method of uncontrolled price equivalent , this method relies on comparative market .
3. A method of selling price back
This method of calculating transaction prices beginning with a reasonable price charged on the sale of goods meant to the purchaser who independent. Margins that is adequate to close the burden and profit nomal then subtracted from the price is to acquire the price inter-university transfer of the company.
4. A method of determining the cost plus
This method useful when goods spring so diverted antarperusahaan foreign affiliates or if an entity is wro contractors to the other companies .
5. A method of comparable profit
This method supporting a general view stating that taxpayers have a situation similar should get all similar in return for a certain period of time .
6. A method of disseverance profit
This method used in case of reference market the product or not available. This method includes the division profit produced through with the privileged related transactions between affiliated company which is based on a reasonable manner.
7. Method determination price other
This method can be used if prices produce size reasonable more accurate .

Financial Risk Management

The main purpose of financial risk management is to minimize potential losses arising from unexpected change in price currency , credit , commodities and equity. Risk of price volatility facing this is known as risk market. Risk market contained in various forms .
Though focus on volatility prices or rate , accountant management need to evaluate risk other as :
  1. Risk liquiditas arise because not all products financial risk management can be traded on freely.
  2. Discontinuity market reference to a risk that the market does not always effect change price gradually
  3. Credit risk is the possibility that the opposing party in a contract management resikotidak can fulfill its obligation
  4. Regulation risk is risk arising because the public authority forbid the use of a financial products for a specific purpose
  5. Tax risk  is a risk that transactions hedge no particular can obtain tax treatment desired .
  6. Accounting risk is a chance that a transaction hedge cannot noted as part of a transaction that will protected value .
ROLE OF ACCOUNTING

Management accounting play a particularly important role in the process of risk management. They help in acknowledges exposure market , mengkuantifikasi balance associated with strategy response risk an alternative , measuring potential facing company against certain risks , noted products hedge particular and evaluate program hedge. 

A fundamental framework beneficial to identify different kinds of risk market potentially can be called as mapping risk. This skeleton prefixed to the observation of the various relations risk market against triggered the value of a firm and competition. Trigger value referring to the condition financial and outposts operating performance chief financial affecting value of a company. Risk market risk includes exchange rate and foreign exchange rates , risk and commodity prices and equity. Currency the sources of purchase decreased value relative against the state money domnestik , and this change may cause domestic competitors capable of being sells at a lower price , this is called as competitive risk of currency hand. An accountant management should file a function thus the probability of being associated with a series of each of the output to the trigger of value. Another role played by the accountants in the process of risk management includes the process of balancing the quantification pertaining to an alternative strategy response risk.  The risk of foreign exchange rate is one of the most common form of risk and will be faced by the multinational company. In the world of floating exchange rate , risk management includes : 
( 1 ) the exchange rate movement
( 2 ) the measurement of foreign exchange rate risk faced by the company
( 3 ) the design of strategy adequate protection  and 
( 4 ) the control of risk management internal .
Money managers have had information about the possibility of directions , time , exchange rate changes and magnitude and can devise measurements defensive adequate with more efficient and effective .

Management Planning And Control

MANAGEMENT PLANNING AND CONTROL (Perencanaan dan kendali manajemen)

Planning and control management very important for the company , in this multinationals. However, reduction in trade barriers national perennially currency float , risk sovereignty , restriction against sender fund cross-border national differences in national tax system , differences rates interest rate and influence commodity prices and equity mercurial against assets , profit , and capital cost company is variable that complicate management decision. Global competition and fast penyebarn information support the narrowness national differences in practice accounting management. Pressure additional includes among other changes markets and technology growth privatization incentives charge , and performance and coordination operation global through a joint venture and clasps strategic other.

Company in doing control management need planning instrument that can identify factor-faktor relevant in the future , scanning to the environment external and internal. The device helps the company to recognize opportunities and challenges occur. One of the device is analysis wots-up involving its strength and weakness company pertaining to operating environment company. Accountant also will help the planner company to obtain data are beneficial in decision strategic planning.

Then , a decision to do overseas investment is the all-important element in strategy global a multinational corporations. Investment environment risk followed by foreign, complicated, and continuously changing. Formal planning is a necessity and commonly performed in a frame of meantime compare benefits and capital investment are proposed. The difference in legal tax , accounting system , the inflation rate , the risk of nationalizing , a framework of currency , segmenting the market , in a diversion abridgement profit was arrested and differences in their language and culture add the intricacy of elements that seldom encountered in the domestic. Adaption ( customizations ) by the multinational company upon the model of planning investment traditionally has been carried in three areas : ( 1 ) determine the measurements of return that relevant for investment multinationals , ( 2 ) a measure of expectation cash flow , and ( 3 ) calculate capital cost of the multinational company.

A manager shall determine return rate relevant to mengalisis chance foreign investment. However , return rate is a relevant points of view : project foreign or a company. The returns of two this perspective can differ significantly as some things : ( 1 ) restriction by government on repatriation as profit and capital , ( 2 ) the cost permit , royalt , and other payment that is profit to induk company but is a burden to subsidiary ; ( 3 ) the difference the national inflation rate , and ( 4 ) change foreign exchange rate , and ( 5 ) the difference tax .
Money managers have meet many of the purposes by giving response to group investors and noninvestor in organizations and in their environment. If foreign investment unpromising return that has been adjusted risk whose value more than return obtained competitors local , then shareholders induk company will be better to invest directly in.

MAKING BUSINESS MODEL 

The determination of the business model was an image of big , and consisting of formulations , and evaluating the implementation of the long term business plan an enterprise .
It includes four main dimensions :
  1. Acknowledges factor-faktor main relevant company to progress in the future .
  2. Formulate a technique that is adequate to forecast of future developments and analyzing company ability to conform or make use of the development .
  3. Develop data sources to support pilihn-pilihan stratrgis .
  4. Certain methods menstranslasikan menjaid serangkain the act of being specific .
PLANNING INSTRUMENT
A system is applicable to collect information over competitors and the market conditions. Good competitors and the market conditions analyzed to see influence both against notch competition and profitability company. Inputs obtained from this analysis used to plan measurements that diguankan to defend or enlarge market share or you , to know and make use of new products and occasion market. One of the device is analysis wots-up. This analysis concerning strength and weakness company pertaining to environtment operations of the firm. This technique help management in generates a series of a viable strategy.

CAPITAL BUDGETING
There are several procedure to determine capital structure optimum of an enterprise , measuring capital cost an enterprise , and evaluate an alternative investai based on condition uncertainty. Rules the decision to investment options generally need pendiskontoan cash flows are investment has been adjusted for risk based on interest rates adequate : weighted average coal capital cost company.

COST OF MULTINATIONAL CAPITAL

If investment abroad be evaluated use the model of cash flow terdiskonto , the discount rate proper must be developed. The theory of capital meantime specifically use of capital cost the company is as the level of that disconto ; thus a project should produce at least return equal to the capital cost the company to may be accepted. Level that it is related to the proportion of debt and equity in the structure of corporate finance are :
ka = weighted average coal capital cost ( after taxes )
ke = the cost of equity
Ki = cost utan before taxes
E = equity value of the company
D = the value of debts of the company
S = value of the company 's capital structure ( e d )
T = marginal tax rates

Similar problems are related to the measurement of the components of an average debt capital cost. In a country , cost effective interest rate debt is multiplied by ( 1-t ) because its flowers are commonly load that can be deducted for tax.

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS
The information systems all over the world belonging to a corporation is crucial thing in support of the corporate strategy , including the planning process. This task challenge , because a fundamental framework multinational naturally more complicated than a fundamental framework country .
Information management and hiperinflation. Fas no.52 , obliging translasi temporal , use the method of as explained upon before , when doing translation of sccounts affiliated company that is in foreign lingkungan berinfliasi high. Despite provisions of a kind and fas no.52 national provides guidance are beneficial in neyusun report currency hard , the provisions are not meet information needs of companies operating in countries with high inflation.
In the environment high inflation , the financial statement is in accordance with fas 52 tending to evoke distortions of reality through :
  • more judging or assessing less income and load
  • reported profits or losses translasi big is difficult tobe interpretation
  • mendistorsikan comparison performance antarwaktu .
Issues in financial control
Control system management aimed at achieving purpose company with the most effective way and most efficient. Otherwise system financial control system is quantitative measurement and communication that facilitates control includes : ( 1 ) communication tujaun-tujuan financial properly in organization , ( 2 ) memeperinci criteria and standards in performance evaluation , ( 3 ) overseeing the performance , and ( 4 ) communicate deviation between the performance actual and plan to parties is responsible. Financial control system strong allow management puncak to focus attention on the subsidiary that leads to goals common . Control system consisting of operational policy and finance , reporting internal structure , budget operation and guide procedures consistent with its purpose management summit .

Analysis Of International Financial Report

Analysis Of International Financial Report,
(Analisis Laporan Keuangan Internasional)

International financial analysis report ( alki ) required because there 's rising international investment and done with intent to keuanganantar companies and between the time data is down there.

Analysis Of International Business Strategy

Analysis business strategy is an important step first in analysis financial report. This analysis provide understanding qualitative over companies and all their competition relating to environmental economic case. With identifying of thruster profit and business risk which is ultimate, analysis business strategy or effort will help analysts to make forecasting realistic
Thw difficulties analysis Of international business strategy :
1. Accessibility of information
Analysis business strategy difficult especially in some countries because of lacking andalnya information on the macro economic development. Received information on industry also hard done in many of the states as well as to the quality and amount of information highly diverse companies. Special accessibility of information about the company very low in developing countries. Recently many large corporate who performs registration and acquire capital in overseas markets had expanded the disclosure of them and voluntarily turn to the principle of accounting internationally recognized as a standard financial reporting international.
2. A recommendation to do an analysis
Limitation of data make an effort to do the analysis afterwards business strategy by using the method of traditional research being difficult to do. Often often done travel to study the business climate and bagaimanan local industry and the company actually operates , especially in the developing countries

Analysis Of Accounting

Accounting analysis purpose is to analyze the extent to which the company reported reflect economic reality .
Stepin doing evalusai accounting quality of a company:
a) Identify the major accounting policies
b) Analyze accounting flexibility
c) Evaluate accounting strategy
d) Evaluate the quality of disclosure
e) Indentification potential problems
f) Make adjustments for accounting distortions

International Financial Analysis

International financial analysis report
A source of information for analysis reports international finance is :
1. The financial report , a supporter of schedule and the record on the financial statements
2. The background of wealth companies and pengungkapannya

International financial analysis techniques have been used is :
1. Analysis of the data compare trend item-item periodically for two years or more like the trend of profit, debt ratings, a change of the revenue, the growth of geometric etc.
2. Analysis of the ratio of comparing items one with another item financial statements with the purpose of obtaining the same understanding about profitability company , leverage , liquidity and efficiency.

An indicator of return :
1. Earnings per share = net profit growth of common shares
total of common stock from common shares outstanding
Return on assets = Net income / Total Assets
Return on equity = Net income / Owners' equity

2. Liquidity and Risk Indicators:
· Current Ratio = Current Assets / Debt
· Debt to equity ratio = Total Debt / Owners' equity

Mechanism To Resolve The Differences Accounting Principle Among Countries

Some approach that can do is :
- some analysts re- presenting size accounting foreign according to a group principle that internationally recognized or conforming to other basic more generally .
- few others develop complete understanding over accounting practice a group of countries in particular and limit their analysis against companies located in these countries .


Difficulties And Weakness In The Analysis Of International Reeport

A. Access to information
Information about thousands of company of the world has widely available in recent years. Source of information in amount innumerable emerging through world wide web ( www ). Company in the world today have a web site and its annual report available for free from various sources other .
B. Timing information
Timing the financial report , annual report , report to the regulator vary in the countries .
C. Hindrance language and terminology .
D. Issues currency foreign .
E. Differences in type and format financial report .

International Accounting Harmonization

International Accounting Harmonization
(Harmonisasi Akuntansi International)

Harmonizing is a process to increase compatibility ( concordance ) accounting practice by determining the limits how big practices the diverse.
Harmonizing accounting includes harmonizing :
1. Accountancy standards ( pertaining to measurement and state disclosure )
2. Disclosure made by companies public related to offer securities and recording on a stock exchange
3. audit standart survey harmonizing international

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARMONIZATION AND STANDARIZATION

Globalization also bringing implication that things formerly considered is the authority and responsibility of each state not not affected by the international community . So is pelapoan financial and accounting standard . One of qualitative of information accounting is diperbandingkan given the importance of this in the world trade and investment international . In this obtained full comparability prevailing broad internationally , standardization necessary international accountancy . At the other side the factor-faktor certain special in a state making each akuntantansi required standards applicable national in that country . It can be seen in view comparator the accounting standard in indonesia and united states the face . In a common the accounting standard in Indonesia there are accounting cooperative who are not necessarily needed in the united states . Based on international accountancy standards complete and comprehensive .
The concept that was more popular than standarization to bridge various kinds of accounting standard in evry country country is the concept of harmony . Harmonizing accounting standard siartikan as to minimize absence of difference many countries accounting standard . Harmonizing can also defined as a group of nations agree on the accounting standard a similar but i think the implementation of not adhering to a standard to be expressed and recommended by agreed standard together .

Harmonizing
- Processes to increase kompabilitas ( kesesuian ) accounting practice by determining the limits of how big the practices can be varied
- not using approach one measure for all
- but accommodate some of the covenant and has experienced a tremendous progress in the past year in an international manner
- harmonization far more flexible and open

Standardization
- determination of a group ostentation and narrow
- application of one standard or rule single in all situation Standardization - does not apply differences interstate
- more difficult to diimpelemntasikan internationally

CRITISM OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

Some authorities said that international accountancy standards penentusn is a solution to be too simple for all the trouble complicated . Furthermore , it might be feared that the adoption of international standards will cause "standard exaggeratedly" . A company must arrangement of national, responding to pressure politics, a social, and whose economy is getting memorize and was made to comply with the requirements auxiliary international being intricate and berbiaya big.

JOIN RECONCILIATION AND RECOGNITION
Reconciliation and mutual recognition two approaches put forward as possible solution used to solve the problems related to the contents of the financial report of cross-border :
1 . Reconciliation
Through reconciliation , foreign companies can construct financial report by using accounting standard country of origin , but should provide reconciliation between measurements accounting important ( as net profit and equity a shareholder ) in the country of origin and in the country where financial report reported.
2 . Mutual recognition ( which also called the "had balik" / were )
Mutual recognition happen if the regulator outside native country receives financial report foreign companies based upon the principles country of origin .

MAJOR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION PROMOTING HARMONIZATION OF ACCOUNTING
Glimpse of the main international organization that propels harmonizing accounting Six organization has become a key player in the determination of the international accountancy standards and in promoting harmonizing international accountancy:
1. International accounting standard boards( iasb )
2. comission of the european union ( eu )
3. International organization of the capital market comission ( iosco )
4. International federate accountant ( ifac )
5. The united nations antarpemerintah a working group on international accounting standards and reporting , part of the united nations conference on trade and development
6. A working group on accountancy standards organization of cooperation and economic development .

Sabtu, 02 Juni 2012

FINANCIAL REPORTING AND PRICE CHANGE

FINANCIAL REPORTING AND PRICE CHANGE
(PELAPORAN KEUANGAN DAN PERUBAHAN HARGA)

There are two term in price swings to be understood as follows :
1. price changes common happen if on average price all goods and services in an economy undergo a change. Units monetary gain advantage or suffered loss purchasing power. Price increases overall called as inflation ( inflation ) , the subsidence price called as deflation ( deflation )
2. price changes specific reference to change in price goods or services certain caused by changes in demand and bidding. So inflation rate per year in a state may hover around 5 % , while prices one unit apartment with one bedroom may be inflated by 50 % over the same period

The impact of inflation to a company

The effects of inflation in the financial position and achievements of the company can be in inefficiency achievement by the decision of a manager who did not understand the impact of that. For example, if the business financial holding cash on financial assets during the period during which experienced inflation rate increase to 10 %, mean as much as 10 % of the ability to purchase end of the period of the commencement of inflation. The effects of inflation in assets nonkeuangan be reflected in the report, and the balance of payment of profit during periods of price increases, earnings from the sale of now be matched against their inventories was probably comes from the purchase of the monthly and against some calculation depreciation histori cost of land, building, and equipment purchases were from a few years ago, though true that inventories of replacing a fixed asset and can become more expensive.

Accounting alternatif size
In general the ability to purchase accounting according to include all sensorial system in maintaining the ability of a purchase as real capital or shareholder, equity in the company in accounting to make the exchange of common level of price. The present value according to accounting on the other hand, include all sensorial systems on the listing of the present value or changes in the price of specifically. By inserting akuntansibiayasekarang and replace the value of an accounting system , which basically means that maintains physical capital, production capacity, or operation of assets at company ; and spending ( now ) accounting or sale price, which shareholder means to keep but in a term applied to the sale price for net assets of the company .

The present value : forget accounting
Although we are talking about and forget the present value of accounting in vidual , the accountant and many economists believe that in accounting system combining both based on the real value.

International financial reporting standards

First reaction of iasc ( now iasb ) to accounting inflation in 1977 in the ias 6 , Accounting responses to changing prices. Iasc try to establish the standard major in abridgement choice who is and must first based on consensus about its members of an organization that ias 6 be very concise. International accountancy standards panitia believe that further experiment is necessary before it can provide consideration that is demanding company to claimed the financial report of the main , using a system that uniform and thorough to reflect a change of prices. Company financial statement that presents the main base charge at the principal matter will assist historical evolution to provide additional information that reflects the effect of the price volatility. The main types of information that reflects the effect of the price volatility recommended for the disclosure ias by 15 , that is,
1. A number of adjustment or adjust the amount of shrinkage hak milik , a factory , and equipment .
2. A number of adjustment or adjust the sum charged sales .
3. Adjustments related to post monetary , an effect in borrowing , or flower capital , at adaptations that as it has been be counted in determining income by method of accountant
4. A whole effect on the outcome adjustment as good as any other material reflect effect in changing prices reported under an accounting method adopted.
5. A method of cost now adopted , equipment and plant and inventories.
6. A method adopted counting information sue at in matter first , includes nature uses index .

Comparison national rules and practices
Practice accounting , inflation varying worldwide and to a consideration concerning level rates and inflation impact. Experience accounting inflation a substantial been obtained following hiperinflasi occurring most frequently in south america , especially in argentina , brazilian and cili.di england , profession accounting introduce ssap 16 in 1980. Officials withdraw ssap 16 in 1988 following deterioration criticism and tiers inflation of business. In the u.s. , regulation first introduced with the legal worn by the sec in 1976. Am ok and state disclosure current a charge required by sfas 33 in addition to the disclosure income that has been adjusted , supplies , plant and equipment it takes to be disclosure together by increase and decrease in costs now adjust for am ok.

Inflation accounting in south america
With hiperinflasi infesting in some recent years in several countries in south america , especially brazil and argentina , this is not mngejutkan pressures that there is to adopt systems inflation accounting. In brazil, the inflation adjustment accounting used in the early 1950s , but a regulation / law the new company in 1976, namely approach pengindeksasian common to give back fees historical under terms of purchasing power now as a date from the financial statement. All companies must give back the balance with respect to property, building, and fixtures and deprisiasi relating, investments, and expenses suspended and equity holders in argentina , inflation accounting system introduced especially passing initiative and intervening profession accounting. In 1972, a statement used as the main issues, recommended publication pelapaporan additional financial am ok. In 1995 , the terms of adjustment am ok moved following a period of inflation low.

Accounting value now in the netherlands
In dutch the people of holland conscious of value accounting now for a long time . Two reasons why focus on dutch if no requirement to cost now or of accounting am ok that is , first involving theory professor theodore limberg , often called adja theory value replacement because kepeloporannya work in holland the 1930s . He focus on the strong relations between economic and accounting and believes revenue should not produced without resources for business of income from a continuity or continuation. Income is a function of income and values replacement rather than expenses historical. In extra limberg maintain that information value must now used all the decision-making.

The second reason is to see at dutch to learn from experience from company philips multinational dutchmen who was a pioneer supplier financial report value now . Philips is so a nice example and valuable of application practice in accounting value now .
In a financial filing value now , philips use value now with the replacement process with penyesuian reflects the degree to which an additional advantage of financial assets of borrowing than capital equity .
Values now used by the department of purchase for asset fixed ; by the department permesinan to design the specifications equipment , and by building design and the department permesinan building to building buildings .

FOREIGN CURRENCY TRANSLATION

Foreign currency translation is the process of reporting financial information from one currency into other currencies. Foreign currency translation done to prepare joint financial statement that gives a report by readers information about operating the company globally , by taking into account the financial report of foreign currency of a subsidiary firm against foreign currency induk company. Additional three reasons he did translasi foreign currencies , which is this :
1 . records the transactions of foreign currency ;
2. account for its effect on corporate translasi currency ; and
3 . communicate with interested people foreign stocks.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TRANSLATION AND CONVERSION OF FOREIGN CURRENCY
Foreign currency translation not equal to conversion. Translation is just change units monetary like an existential balance sheet expressed in english pounds served reëxamined into value equivalent of us dollars. No exchange physical happened , and no transaction related that happen like when performed conversion. The busrts in foreign currency is been translated be of value equivalent of domestic currency exchange rates foreign exchange rate based on the price of a single unit of currency is expressed in other currencies. Currency of the country major trading bought and sold in the global market.With connected through a sophisticated telecommunication network , market participants include an intermediary bank and other currencies , the effort , the individual , and professional traders.
Transactions foreign currency happen to spot market , forward , or swap. Currencies are bought or sold at spot general should delivered soon is in a couple a working day. Exchange rate spot market influenced by many of , including the different levels of inflation among countries , differences interest rates national and expectations to the direction of the exchange rate in the future. The transaction in market forward is agreement to exchange a currency to a specific amount into another currency at a date in the future. Kuotasi on the forward expressed with a discount or premiums from the spot. Swap transactions involving spot purchases and sales forward spot or sale or purchase forward , over a currency simultaneously . Investors often utilizing swap transactions to take advantage of interest rates higher in a foreign country , at the same time protect ourselves to the movement of unfavorable rate of exchange rates foreign exchange .

THE TERM IN FOREIGN CURRENCY TRANSLATION
* conversion
Translation the one currency with other currencies
* exchange rate at this time
Current level of money influence on the financial statement.
* translasi foreign currency
The description or a count the number of using foreign currency as a unit of calculation.
* contract transaction forward
An agreement to perform translasi the currencies of different countries with an specif and time were approved.
* currency functional.
Major currencies used in a business and income and storage money .
* rate historical
Foreign currency exchange rates prevailing when assets or obligation with foreign currency first time in get.

A glossary translasi foreign currency adapted from psak ( sfas no.52 ) , 1981 .
1. Attribute , characteristic quantitative a post measured for the purposes of accounting. Example , cost histories and cost of replacing a that is an attribute of an asset .
2. Of converting , pertukatan a currency into currency other .
3. Exchange rate now , exchange rates prevailing on the financial report relevant .
4. Discounted , when the rate of exchange that the next lower than levels valid today .
5. position net assets at risk , surplus assets measured in or berdenominasi in foreign currency and rate now ditranslasikan by the use of an obligation are measured or berdenominasi in foreign currency and ditranslasikan by the use of the present .
6. foreign currencies , a currency besides currencies used by a country , currency besides currency reporting used by the company .
7. financial statement is in foreign currency , a financial statement that the use of foreign currency as a unit of measurement .
8. Foreign currency transactions , transactions ( i.e. sale or purchase of goods or services , loans or debt or receivable hade ) with expressed in terms of currency denominated functional in addition to the company .
9. Translasi foreign currencies , the process to declare jumlah-jumlah that berdenominasi or measured in a currency into currency another by means of the rupiah 's exchange rate of exchange between the two eyes the money .
10. foreign operatio , an operative who produces financial report ( 1 ) the combined or consolidated or reckoned based on equity method in the financial report of the company filer and ( 2 ) will be prepared in foreign currency denominated in addition to the complainant reporting the company .
11.forward exchange contact, a treaty to interchanging the currencies of different countries by using rate certain ( rate forward ) on a particular date in the future .
12. Currency functional , major currencies yanga suatau used by firm in its business activities , and in producing or using kasnya .
13. Exchange rate histories , exchange rate exchange rates foreign currencies use at the time of an asset or obligation in foreign currency bought or happen .
14. Local currency , currency a particular state used ; currency reporting used by an operative domestic or abroad .
15. The outposts monetary , an obligation to pay or right to receive a number of the unit of currency in a fixed value in the future .
16. Currency reporting , currencies used in composing company financial report.
17. The settlement date the date when a debt is paid by a receivable collected.
18. The spot , the exchange rate for exchanging currency in time immediately .
19. The transaction , the date when the accounting records are recorded in a transaction such company .
20. Adjustment translatoin , adjustment arising from process translasi financial report of currencies functional an enterprise being denominated trhe report.
21. A unit of measurement , currencies used to measure assets , obligation , income and load .

THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FOREIGN CURRENCY TRANSLATIONS
If point of view local currency used ( viewpoints company local ) , the entry of adjustment translasi in profit walk need not perform. Include gains and losses translasi in profits could mendistorsikan relations financial original and can be misleading users the information. Profits or losses translasi shall be dealt from the perspective of local currency as adjustment against equity owner.
If currency reporting induk the company constitutes a unit of measurement of financial report be translation ( viewpoints companies ) , highly inadvisable to admit of profits or losses translasi earnings soon as possible. Viewpoint induk company see the son of foreign companies as the expansion of induk the company. Gains and losses translasi reflecting the increase or decrease in equity foreign investment in currency domestic and must be recognized .
1. Suspension of :
Adjustment translasi foreign currency accumulated separately capital as part of the merger
2. Suspension and amortization
Suspend the gains and losses is mengamortisasi adjustment beyond age benefits related items in the balance sheet
3. A portion of an adjournment
Concede the loss immediately when the , but only if realized just admitting of advantage
4. No of an adjournment

EFFECT OF FOREIGN CURRENCY TRANSLATION METHOD ON THE FINANCIAL STATEMENT

Although most technical issues in accounting tending to solved by itself in line with the passage of time , foreign exchange translasi terrnyata is an exception. That this trend will continue unabated supported by the development of events such as the collapse of domination of currency dollars , the movement of the value of the currency was approved by the government , and globalization the world capital markets , that has increased the importance of reporting and disclosure of finance. The development of events like this had major role increase their interest eksekutif- � � for finance , accountant , and financial community in the importance of economic and the consequences of translasi foreign exchange. Let 's see what defines and development of accounting teki-teki intemasional this.

Single rate method
Based on approach translasi this, financial statements foreign operations, regarded by holding company, self-organizing as an entity having a domicile of reporting their own. This is the neighborhood where local accounting affiliated company mentraksaksikan these foreign affairs of the business. To retain flavor local exchange of the report , a way to be found to translasi can be held by minimal distortion. A most excellent way is the use of a method of exchange rate in force. Despite the draw and simple , in a conceptual manner a method of exchange rate applies more blame by some for ruining the basic objective of consolidated financial report , that is because present, to benefit shareholders holding company, financial position and the results of operations and the parent companies of his son from the perspective of exchange is single. maintaining exchange is reporting induk as a unit of measurement of the company. In the methods of exchange rate applies, consolidated results would reflect perspekfif-perspektif exchange of each country where the companies are. For example , if a company assets dip = roleh a child abroad for va 1,000 when kursnya is $ 1, va = 1 the cost of historisnya from the perspective of dollars was $ 1,000 ; from the perspective of local exchange also $ 1,000. If the rate change into va 5 = $ 1, the cost of the assets of historical perspective dollar (translastion historically) , will cost $ 1,000. If the local exchange is fixed. Method rate also apply blame because assumes that all assets local affected by exchange rate risk ( that is, assumes that exchange fluctuations domestic ekivalen, caused by exchange rate fluctuations translasi walk , is an indicator change intrinsic value assets the ). This is rare right because the value of inventories and assets stay abroad generally supported by inflation local.

Multiple rate methods
The methods by combining double the rupiah 's exchange rate of exchange tramped , historically in the process of translation.
3 a method of a kind of it will be discussed here .
A method of historical .
Based on approach historical, that was popular in the us and everyplace of another before 1976 , assets smooth and the liability of a firm children in foreign exchange translated in reporting its parent by using rate in force. Assets and liabilities non-lancar ditranslasikan with the historical. Item-item financial report, except the burden of depreciation and amortization, ditranslasikan with an average exchange rate of each month operating or weighted average coal with the base of all the period will be reported. The burden of depreciation and amortization ditranslasikan by wearing historical rate prevailing at the time of the asset concerned obtained. This methodology unfortunately, has a weakness. For example , this method has a lacking justification conceptual. A definition that definition of assets and liability and non smoothly doesn ' t explain way classifications like that determine exchange rate which would used in the process transiasi .

Method monetary nonmoneter. As do method historical applies, method moniter nonmoneter wear pattern classifications the balance to determine rate translasi proper. Because monetary item-item solved in treasury ; discharging rate applies to mentranslasikan item-item foreign exchange produce exchange domestic ekivalen that reflects value realization or value its completion .

A method of temporal approach according to temporal , exchange translasi is a process of converting measurement ( that is , the presentation of a certain value reëxamined). Because of that, this method can not be used to change the attribute of an item that is being measured ; this method can only transform a unit of measurement. Balances translasi foreign exchange, for example, just turn ( restate ) denomination persediaan. not appraisement aktualnya. Gaap in the united states , assets cash measured based on jumiah owned on the scales. Receivable and debt expressed in numbers expected to be received or paid down at maturity. Obligations and other assets measured on the price holds when an item � � item is earned or incurred ( the price of historically ). But even so, some of them are measured based on the price prevailing on the financial statements ( walk ), the price of like a stock under the rules of a charge or market. In short , there are pertaining to dimension the time of money values this .

Translation method can be classified into two types of a method of using rate translasi singular to re- presenting balances in foreign currency into value equivalent in currency domestic or methods using many technical exchange rate.
1. Method single exchange rate
This method has long popular in europe , applying a rate exchange rates , namely rate current and the exchange rate to all assets and liabilities smoothly. Earnings and the load in foreign currency generally ditranslasikan by using rate the exchange rate prevailing at the time the outposts recognized. However to ease outposts is generally ditranslasikan by using weighted average coal rate exchange rates proper for that period.
2. A method of double exchange rate
A method of combining double the rupiah 's exchange rate and histories the exchange rate of the rupiah 's exchange rate of exchange is now in the process of translasi .
3. A method of kini-nonkini
Based on a method of kini-non now, smoothly assets and liabilities smoothly subsidiaries abroad ditranslasikan into currency exchange rate of reporting induk company was based on now. Assets and an obligation is not smoothly ditranslasikan based on the histories. The outposts report earnings of the burden (except depreciation and amortization) ditranslasikan based on average exchange rate prevailing in every month operating or based on the weighted average coal during the whole period of reporting.
4. Method moneter-nonmoneter
Method moneter-non monetary also use scheme classifications the balance you, to determine rate translasi proper. Assets and liabilities monetary ditranslasikan based on exchange rate today. Outposts non monetary assets fixed, long-term investment , and supplies investors ditranslasikan by using rate histories. Outposts report profit ioss ditranslasikan with using procedure equal to described for the concept kini-non now.
5. Temporal method
By using the method temporal, tranlasi currency is process of converting of measurement or repeated presentation of a certain value. This method not changing attribute a post measured , but only unit of measurement change.

EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF FOREIGN CURRENCY TRANSLATION METHOD

Based on method temporal,outposts monetary as cash flow,receivable, and debt be translated based on exchange rate today. Outposts monetary ditranslasikan with rate maintains the grounds of measurement at first. Specifically, assets whose value in the report foreign currency of cost histories, be translated based on exchange rate histories. Why ? This is because costs histories in foreign currencies be traanslated with rate exchange rates histories produced a histories in currency domestic.

Fourth method discussed at one time once used in united states and can be found to this day in various countries. In general, this method inflict results translasi foreign currencies quite different.
Third methods first ( method rate now, method kini-non-kini, and methods moneter-non-moneter ) used in acknowledges assets and obligation which is at risk of or able to be protected from risk foreign currency. Then, translation method consistently applied by taking into account the difference .
Which the best ?
Exchange rate now proper
So far, the rupiah 's exchange rate of exchange a term used in reference to a method of translasi histories or rate now. An average rate of profit often used in a report to the outposts of the burden. Some countries using the rupiah 's exchange rate of exchange for the transaction of different different. In this environment should be chosen few the rupiah 's exchange rate of exchange that is. Some of the recommended an alternative is :
1. the payment of a dividend rate of exchange
2. free market , exchange rate and
3. the penalty or preference that can be used , as in an activity related export import.

Senin, 09 April 2012

Tugas 2 - international accounting

Pelaporan dan Pengungkapan Akuntansi Internasional (Reporting and Disclosure International Accounting)

The disclosures are very system pertaining to the development of an accounting system. Standard and practices disclosure affected by sources of finance, a legal system, political and economic ties, the rate of economic development, the level of education, culture, and others influence. Differences national in disclosure generally is propelled by differences in management companies and finance. In the u.s. , english and countries the other american, equity market provide most funding required a company so be very advanced. In those markets, possession tending to widespread among many shareholders and protection for investors very emphasized. Institutional investors play a role that is more important in these countries, demanding financial returns and shareholder value being increased. In most other countries (such as France, Japan and some countries of a growing market), stock ownership still remains highly concentrated and the bank (and or owner family) has traditionally been the main source of financing for the company. These banks in other circles, and gained a lot of information about the company's financial position and activities.

Corporate disclosure of evolution
Obligations and practices corporate disclosure affected by certain things , among others as follows :
The impact of the the stock market
In an economy competitive, to distribute the disclosure koorperasi is a means of accountability koorperasi to the provider capital ( investors ) and for mepermudah resource allocation for the utilization of the most productive. A coorporatiom need to attract capital in huge amounts for the financing of activities, extensive production and distribution. Therefore this internal pembiyaan is heavily dependent on external capital invested by investors on a coorporation, as a mutual, an investor requires disclosure (tansparansi koorperasi) in which investors can assess the quality of the stock they bury it.
A conceptual relation between the disclosure of being meingkat and capital cost company of behavioral investment in the condition of uncertainty , which is this :
1. In the world of uncertainty , investors looking at the return on investment securities as of money received as konsekwensi proprietorship
2. Because of uncertainty returns was seen in sense probabilistic
3. Investors use a number of different sizes for measuring the expected results of a sekuritas
4. Investors like the return on high for level risks certain or otherwise
5. The value of an securities positive associated with streams expected results and is associated with reverse risk pertaining to refund pool
6. So , disclosure company will increase distribution probability of the expected results by investors by reducing uncertainty relating to refund pool. So will increase performance of companies ( ) in eyes investors so it attracts investors to invest more loans to securities same so as to diminish capital cost.

Effect of Non-Financial
This happens when there is a growing trend where public koorperasi responsible for policies and actions. This is due to the small countries tend to see multinational companies as a direct threat to the sovereignty of the country, where multinational companies are able to create the general living standards of a country with multinational business activities, such as direct investment strategies that affect exchange rates abroad.Besides the welfare of society can be influenced by the tax payment arbiter (arbitrary) between countries, or a series of manipulation by multinational companies, so that "shareholders non - financial, such as trade unions, government, and the general public requires transparency (disclosure) corporations, both financial and non-financial.UN efforts to move the observance of foreign direct investment activities, as follows:1. Value of direct investment limit is where a single foreign investor controlling more than 10% of common shares or voting rights is effective in management.2. Composition of direct investment income, are dividends, retained earnings, and accrued interest.3. Elimination of capital gains / losess: where profits must not contain any capital gain or losess already / not yet realized.4. Inter-company accounts receivable billing must enter the transaction in the stock, or long-term debt and short.5. Conversion procedure where the interest, dividends, profits are distributed and retained in foreign currency shall be converted in the spot rate on the date of receipt.6. Measurement of direct investment should be measured using the book value of the share capital and reserves.7. Re-estimate the stock of direct investment, where the ownership of the shares must be re-estimated using replacement cost instead of book value.

Sabtu, 07 April 2012

LAPORAN KEUANGAN - RUGI LABA

1. PENGERTIAN LAPORAN KEUANGAN

Laporan keuangan adalah catatan informasi keuangan suatu perusahaan pada suatu periode akuntansi yang dapat digunakan untuk menggambarkan kinerja perusahaan tersebut. Menurut Zaki Baridwan dalam bukunya yang berjudul “Intermediate Accounting” menyatakan bahwa :

“Laporan keuangan merupakan ringkasan dari suatu proses pencatatan, merupakan suatu ringkasan dari transaksi-transaksi keuangan yang terjadi selama tahun buku yang bersangkutan.” ( 2000;17)

Menurut Taswan dalam bukunya yang berjudul “Akuntansi Perbankan” laporan keuangan didefinisikan sebagai :

“Bentuk informasi yang disajikan oleh bagian akuntansi adalah laporan keuangan. Laporan keuangan disusun sebagai bentuk pertanggungjawaban manajemen terhadap pihak-pihak yang berkepentingan dengan kinerja perusahaan yang dicapai selama periode tertentu.” ( 2005;39)

2. JENIS – JENIS LAPORAN KEUANGAN

Media yang dapat dipakai untuk meneliti kondisi kesehatan perusahaan adalah laporan keuangan dimana jenis laporan keuangan terdiri dari elemen-elemen yang menghubungkan transaksi-transaksi yang telah terjadi pada perusahaan. Jenis-jenis laporan keuangan yang lengkap menurut Ikatan Akuntan Indonesia dalam Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan (PSAK) no.1 terdiri dari komponen-komponen berikut ini:
1. Neraca
Neraca adalah laporan keuangan yang menunjukan posisi keuangan suatu perusahaan pada saat tertentu. Informasi yang terdapat dalam neraca adalah jumlah harta, hutang, dan modal perusahaan pada saat tertentu. Informasi tersebut dapat bersifat opersional atau strategis, baik kebijakan modal kerja, investasi, maupun struktur modal yang telah diambil oleh perusahaan. Secara garis besar, neraca memberikan informasi mengenai sumber dan penggunaan dana perusahaan. Sisi sebelah kiri neraca ( aktiva ) merupakan sisi penggunaan dana perusahaan yakni berupa kebijakan investasi jangka panjang dan investasi jangka pendek. Sedangkan sisi sebelah kanan ( passiva ) menunjukan sumber-sumber dana untuk membiayai investasi jangka panjang maupun investasi jangka pendek. Pos-pos dalam neraca disusun mulai dari yang paling likuid ( mudah dicairkan menjadi uang tunai ) sampai dengan yang paling tidak likuid.
2. Laporan Rugi-Laba
Laporan laba-rugi merupakan laporan mengenai pendapatan, biaya-biaya, dan laba perusahaan selama periode tertentu. Laporan laba-rugi biasanya disusun dengan dua pendekatan, yaitu pendekatan kontribusi dan pendekatan fungsional. Pendekatan kontribusi membagi biaya dalam dua sifat pokok yakni biaya variabel dan biaya tetap. Pendekatan ini digunakan dalam mengambil keputusan manajemen berkenaan dengan perencanaan biaya, volume dam laba. Laporan laba-rugi yang disusun dengan pendekatan fungsional memberikan informasi mengenai biaya-biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh setiap fungsi utama dalam perusahaan ( fungsi produksi, pemasaran, sumber daya perusahaan dan keuangan ).
3. Laporan Perubahan Ekuitas
Laporan perubahan modal adalah ikhtisar tentang perubahan suatu perusahaan yang terjadi selama periode tertentu. Laporan ini merupakan penghubung antara laporan laba rugi dan neraca. Informasi yang terdapat didalamnya dapat menjawab pertanyaan tentang pertambahan modal perusahaan serta sebab-sebabnya.
4. Laporan Arus Kas
Laporan arus kas merupakan laporan yang mempunyai peranan penting dalam memberi informasi mengenai berapa besar dan kemana saja kas digunakan serta dari mana sumber kas itu diperoleh. Laporan ini menunjakan apa yang telah dilakukan perusahaan terhadap kas yang dimilikinya.
5. Catatan atas Laporan Keuangan
Catatan atas laporan keuangan merupakan keterangan atau informasi hal-hal dalam laporan keuangan yang kurang jelas. Informasi tentang dasar penyusunan laporan keuangan dan kebijakan akuntansi yang dipilih dan diterapkan terhadap peristiwa dan transaksi yang penting, informasi yang diwajibkan dalam PSAK tetapi tidak disajikan di neraca, laporan rugi-laba, laporan arus kas dan laporan perubahan ekuitas, informasi tambahan yang tidak disajikan dalam laporan keuangan tetapi diperlukan dalam rangka penyajian secara wajar.

3. KOMPONEN DALAM LAPORAN KEUANGAN – NERACA

Laporan neraca atau daftar neraca disebut juga laporan posisi keuangan perusahaan. Laporan ini menggambarkan posisi aktiva kewajiban dan modal pada saat tertentu. Laporan ini bisa disusun tiap saaat dan merupakan opname situasi posisi keuangan pada saat itu.
Isi/komponen laporan neraca terdiri atas:

HartaAktiva (Asset)
Asset adalah harta yg dimiliki perusahaan yg berperan dalam operasi perusahaan misal kas persediaan aktiva tetap aktiva yg tak terwujud dan lain-lain. Pengertian asset ini dikemukakan oleh berbagai pihak sebagai berikut :

Menurut Accounting Principal Board (APB) Statement (1970:132) dikemukakan bahwa :
“kekayaan ekonomi perusahaan termasuk didalam pembebanan yg ditunda yg dinilai dan diakui sesuai prinsip akuntansi yg berlaku.”

Selanjut Financial Accounting Standard Board (FASB) (1985) memberikan definisi sebagai berikut :
“asset adalah kemungkinan keuntungan ekonomi yg diperoleh atau dikuasai di masa yg akan datang oleh lembaga tertentu sebagai akibat transaksi atau kejadian yg lalu.”

Berdasarkan definisi tersebut di atas maka dapat dikatakan bahwa sesuatu dianggap sebagai asset jika di masa yg akan datang dapat diharapkan memberikan net cash inflow yg positif kepada perusahaan. Klasifikasi aktiva yg dimiliki perusahaan terdiri dari berbagai macam. Secara umum klasifikasi aktiva tetap terdiri atas : 1) aktiva tetap berwujud (Fixed Asset) dan 2) aktiva tetap tak berwujud (Intangible Assets). Aktiva tetap berwujud meliputi semua barang yg dimiliki perusahaan dgn tujuan utk dipakai secara aktif dalam operasi perusahaan dan mempunyai masa kegunaan relatif permanen. Aktiva tetap berwujud yg mempunyai masa kegunaan yg terbatas harus didepresiasi selama masa kegunaan dan disajikan dalam neraca sebesar nilai buku (harga perolehan dikurangi dgn akumulasi depresiasinya). Yang termaduk dalam golongan aktiva ini adl bangunan mesin dan alat-alat pabrik mebel dan alat-alat kantor kendaraan dan alat-alat transport alat kerja bengkel aktiva sumber alam. Sedang aktiva tetap berwujud yg mempunyai masa kegunaan tak terbatas disajikan di dalam neraca sebesar harga perolehan. Sedangkan aktiva tetap tak berwujud meliputi hak-hak preferensi ( istimewa ) yg dijamin oleh undang-undang kontrak perjanjian-perjanjian dan mempunyai masa manfaat dalam waktu relatif permanen.
Menurut Harnanto (1991:357) bagi manajemen operating investment (assets) meliputi seluruh mesin dan alat-alat pabrik dan lain-lain equipmen serta modal kerja yg ditempatkan utk dikelola atau dioperasikan dalam usaha perusahaan utk menghasilkan laba.
Berdasarkan pengertian di atas menunjukkan bahwa pada sudut pandang operasional investasi aktiva tetap adalah merupakan salah satu unsur penting yg perlu menjadi fokus perhatian bagi perusahaan dalam kegiatan operasional dalam kaitan dgn menghasilkan pendapatan/laba. Disamping itu untuk tujuan pemeliharaan kondisi aktiva tetap baik berwujud maupun tak berwujud tetap dalam kondisi produktif bagi perusahaan diperlukan ada depresiasi dan amortisasi sebagai proses alokasi harga perolehan aktiva tetap tersebut.

Kewajiban/utang (Liabilities)
Menurut definisi yg diberikan oleh APB bahwa :
“kewajiban ekonomis dari suatu perusahaan yg diakui dan dinilai seusuai prinsip akuntansi. Kewajiban disini termasuk juga saldo kredit yg ditunda yg bukan merupakan utang atau
kewajiban.”
Berdasarkan definisi di atas maka kewajiban ekonomis bagi perusahaan adl diartikan sebagai penyerahan harta atau jasa di masa yg akan datang. Selanjut FASB memberikan definisi kewajiban sebagai berikut :

“….kemungkinan pengorbanan kekayaan ekonomis di masa yg akan datang yg timbul akibat kewajiban perusahaan sekarang utk memberikan harta atau memberikan jasa kepada pihak lain di masa yg akan datang sebagai akibat suatu transaksi atau kejadian yg sudah terjadi.”

Definisi tersebut di atas menunjukkan bahwa kewajiban memiliki 3 sifat utama yaitu ; (1) kewajiban itu benar ada (2) kewajiban itu tak dapat dihindarkan (3) kewajiban yg mewajibkan perusahaan telah terjadi.
Kewajiban jika dikategorikan sesuai dengan jangka waktu maka terdapat kewajiban jangka pendek (Current liabilities) dan kewajiban jangka panjang (long-term liabilities). Menurut Harnanto (1991:59) hutang jangka panjang adalah semua hutang yg jatuh tempo pembayaran melampaui batas waktu satu tahun sejak tanggal neraca atau pembayaran tak akan dilakukan dalam periode siklus operasi perusahaan tetapi lbh panjang dari batas waktu tersebut. Hutang obligasi hutang hipoteik hutang bank (kredit investasi) merupakan contoh-contoh dari hutang jangka panjang.
Dalam kegiatan operasi perusahaan hutang jangka panjang merupakan salah satu sumber permodalan yg mengandung resiko krn memiliki komitmen utk melakukan pembayaran sesuai jumlah yg disepakati meski perusahaan dalam keadaan rugi sekalipun sehingga hutang dapat saja menanggung resiko melebihi jumlah modal sendiri. Hal ini dipertegas oleh Harnanto (1991:304) bahwa semakin besar proporsi hutang di dalam struktur permodalan perusahaan akan semakin besar pula kemungkinan terjadi ketak mampuan utk membayar kembali hutang beserta bunga pada tanggal jatuh temponya. Pernyataan tersebut berarti bahwa bagi para kreditur bahwa kemungkinan turut serta dana yg mereka tanamkan di dalam perusahaan utk dipertaruhkan pada resiko kerugian juga semakin besar. Sedangkan bagi para pemilik khusus pemegang saham biasa adaaa hutang di dalam perusahaan merupakan pula suatu resiko tersendiri terhadap kemungkinan rugi yg dihadapi dari dana yg mereka tanamkan. Tetapi resiko itu juga diimbangi ada harapan utk mendapatkan tingkat keuntungan yg lbh tinggi (rentabilitas) sebagai akibat penggunaan modal asing. Akan tetapi perlu diingat bahwa proporsi hutang/modal asing yg berlebihan akan berakibat pada fleksibilitas manajemen untuk beralih pada aktivitas yg profitable akan tertutup dan menghadapi banyak hambatan/tintangan.

Modal Pemilik (Owner’s Equity)
Equity adalah suatu hak yg tersisa atas aktiva suatu lembaga (entity) setelah dikurangi kewajibannya. Kategori modal bagi tiap perusahaan dapat berbeda yaitu pada perusahaan perseorangan nilai modal ini merupakan modal pemilik sendiri. Sedangkan dalam perusahaan perseroan terdiri dari modal setor dan modal dari pendapatan (retained Earnings).

Karya Tulis Ilmiah

BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
Karya tulis ilmiah adalah karya tulis yang disajikan secara ilmiah dalam sebuah forum atau media ilmiah. Karakteristik keilmiahan sebuah karya terdapat pada isi, penyajian, dan bahasa yang digunakan. Isi karya ilmiah tentu bersifat keilmuan, yakni rasional, objektif, tidak memihak, dan berbicara apa adanya. Isi sebuah karya ilmiah harus fokus dan bersifat spesifik pada sebuah bidang keilmuan secara mendalam. Kedalaman karya tentu sangat disesuaikan dengan kemampuan sang ilmuan. Bahasa yang digunakan juga harus besifat baku, disesuaikan dengan sistem ejaan yang berlaku di Indonesia. Bahasa ilmiah tidak menggunakan bahasa pergaulan, tetapi harus menggunakan bahasa ilmu pengetahuan, mengandung hal-hal yang teknis sesuai dengan bidang keilmuannya.
Sebenarnya, penulisan karya ilmiah merupakan kegiatan yang sama dengan proses penulisan pada umumnya. Kegiatan menulis pada dasarnya kegiatan menyampaikan atau menyajikan gagasan atau pikiran, informasi, kehendak, kepentingan, dan berbagai pesan kepada pihak lain dalam bahasa tulis. Kegiatan menulis karya ilmiah tentu dipahami sebagai kegiatan menyampaikan pengetahuan dalam bahasa tulis. Karya ilmiah juga biasanya menggunakan media ilmiah, seperti jurnal ilmiah atau forum ilmiah.
Sebuah karya tulis yang baik tentu komunikatif, maksudnya pesan yang disampaikan dipahami pembaca sebagaimana maksud si penulis. Tulisan yang komunikatif disampaikan melalui bahasa – bahasa yang tersusun sistematis, mudah dicerna, tidak bertele – tele, dan tidak bermakna ganda (ambigu). Menulis karya ilmiah, dengan bahasa lain adalah menyusun kalimat – kalimat bermakna dalam sebuah rangkaian informasi yang berguna untuk pembaca. Karya tulis ilmiah tidak selamanya berawal dari hasil penelitian. Karya tulis ilmiah juga dapat dihasilkan dari pemikiran-pemikiran mendalam yang dilengkapi dengan kajian kepustakaan.



BAB 2
PEMBAHASAN

2.1 DEFINISI KARYA ILMIAH

Ada beberapa definisi mengenai karya ilmiah :
• Dalam buku yang di tulis Drs.Totok Djuroto dan Dr. Bambang Supriyadi disebutkan bahwa karya ilmiah merupakan serangkaian kegiatan penulisan berdasarkan hasil penelitian, yang sistematis berdasar pada metode ilmiah, untuk mendapatkan jawaban secara ilmiah terhadap permasalahan yang muncul sebelumnya.
• Menurut Brotowidjoyo, karya ilmiah karangan ilmu pengetahuan yang menyajikan fakta dan ditulis menurut Metodologi penulisan yang baik dan benar.
• Menurut Hery Firman, karya ilmiah adalah laporan tertulis dan ai publikasikan dipaparkan hasil penelitian atau pengkajian yang teliah dilakukan oleh seorang atau sebuah tim dengan memenuhi kaidah dan etika keilmuan yang dikukuhkan dan ditaati oleh masyarakat keilmuan.
Dari berbagai macam pengertian karya ilmiah di atas dapat disimpulkan, bahwa yang dimaksud karya ilmiah dalam makalah ini adalah,
suatu penulisan yang berdasarkan penelitian yang ditulis secara sistematis, berdasarkan fakta dan data di lapangan dengan menggunakan pendekatan metode ilmiah.
Karya ilmiah, suatu tulisan yang didalamnya membahas suatu masalah. Pembahasan itu dilakukan berdasarkan penyedikan, pengamatan, pengumpulan data yang dapat dari suatu penelitian,baik penelitian lapangan, tes labolatorium ataupun kajian pustaka. Maka dalam memaparkan dan menganalisis datanya harus berdasarkan pemikiran ilmiah,yang dikatakan dengan pemikiran ilmiah disini adalah pemikiran yang logis dan empiris.
Karya ilmiah harus ditulis secara jujurdan akurat berdasarkan kebenaran tanpa mengingat akibatnya. Kebenaran dalam karya ilmiah adalah kebenaran yang objektif-positif, sesuai dengan data dan fakta di lapangan, dan bukan kebenaran yang normatif.berdasarkan hal semacam ini, jelas bahwa sebuah tulisan yang disebut sebagai karya ilmiah harus memiliki persyaratan-persyaratan khusus, seperti yang disebutkan Brotowidjojo yang ditulis oleh Yunita T. Winarto Dkk, dalam bukunya karya ilmiah sosial, bahwa karya ilmiah memiliki syarat- syarat sebagai berikut :
A. Menyajikan fakta secara objektif
B. Mengemukakan segala uraian secara kejujuran
C. Disusun secara sistematis
D. Cenderung bersifat induktif.
E. Bertolak dari hipotesis tertentu.
F. Menghindari tindakan yang manifilatif .
G. Bersifat ekspositiris maupun argumentatif
Untuk memperjelas jawaban ilmiah terhadap permasalahan atau pertanyaan yang ada dalam suatu penelitian, penulisan karya ilmiah harus menggali khazanah pustaka, guna melengkapi teori-teori atau konsep-konsep yang relevan dengan permsalahan yang ingin dijawabnya. untuk itu penulisan karya ilmiah harus rajin dan teliti dalam hal membaca dam mencatat konsep-konsep serta teori-teori yang mendukung karya ilmiahnya tersebut.
2.2 FUNGSI KARYA ILMIAH

Secara mendasar fungsi karya ilmiah adalah sebagai sarana komunikasi akademik dalam sebuah bidang kajian keilmuan. Fungsi lainnya adalah sebagai fungsi ekpresif dan fungsi instrumental. Fungsi ekspresif adalah seseorang dapat menuangkan berbagai gagasan tertulis yang dikomunikasikankepada pihak lain. Menulis berdasarkan fungsi ini adalah usaha pemenuhan kebutuhan diri seseorang sebagai ilmuwan atau sebagai manusia yang berpikir. Sementara itu, fungsi instrumental adalah bahwa menulis menjadi media bagi seseorang untuk meraih tujuan-tujuan lainnya.
Apabila kita bersepakat bahwa menulis itu berkomunikasi dengan orang lain, maka akan didapati fungsi menulis sebagaimana fungsi komunikasi, yakni:
• Fungsi sosial.
Menulis akan menentukan citra diri dan eksistensi diri para penulis secara sosial. Bagi kalangan akademik, kemampuan menulis merupakan kebanggaan, karena mereka menyadari bahwa menulis merupakan keterampilan tingkat tinggi yang tidak dimiliki setiap orang. Dengan kemampuan menulis, orang akan mendapatkan posisi-posisi sosial yang sebelumnya tidak diperoleh. Popularitas dan legalitas sosial merupakan hal yang secara nyata bersignifikan dengan kebiasaan menulis seseorang.
• Fungsi ekspresi.
Menulis diyakini sebagai media untuk mengekspresikan pikiran, ide, gagasan, imajinasi si penulis. Melalui tulisan, para penulis bisa menyampaikan keinginan, penyesalan, kegalauan, angan-angan, ambisi, pendapat, bahkan cita-cita hidupnya. Melalui tulisan pula seseorang bisa mengetahui pikiran dan perasaan orang lain.
• Fungsi Ritual
Mungkin saja dengan menulis dan membacakannya kegiatan ritual disampaikan. Melalui tulisan orang menyampaikan bela sungkawa. Melalui tulisan pula orang menyampaikan doa dan ucapan selamat. Tulisan mungkin saja telah menyebabkan orang yang stress dan prustasi menjadi semangat dan optimis. Menulis ternyata bisa berfungsi ritual dalam konteks ini.
• Fungsi instrumental
Menulis juga bisa menjadi alat untuk mengubah sesuatu (informasi, sikap, pendapat, pandangan) seseorang terhadap sesuatu. Seseorang yang semula berpandangan picik terhadap reformasi mahasiswa, mungkin saja berubah ketika membaca sebuah tulisan tentang reformasi. Seseorang yang memiliki sikap jahat mungkin saja sadar akan perbuatannya setelah membaca sebuah buku keagamaan. Inilah yang dimaksud dengan fungsi intrumental menulis.

2.3 JENIS – JENIS KARYA TULIS ILMIAH

Menurut Soehardjono (2006) meskipun berbeda macam dan besaran angka kreditnya, semua KTI (sebagai tulisan yang bersifat ilmiah) mempunyai kesamaan, yaitu hal yang dipermasalahkan berada pada kawasan pengetahuan keilmuan kebenaran isinya mengacu kepada kebenaran ilmiah kerangka sajiannya mencerminan penerapan metode ilmiah tampilan fisiknya sesuai dengan tata cara penulisan karya ilmiah. Secara garis besar, karya ilmiah di klasifikasikan menjadi dua, yaitu karya ilmiah pendidikan dan karya ilmiah penelitian
1. Karya iImiah Pendidikan
Karya ilmiah pendidikan digunakan tugas untuk meresume pelajaran, serta sebagai persyaratan mencapai suatu gelar pendidikan. Karya ilmiah pendidikan terdiri dari :
1.1 Paper (Karya Tulis).
Paper atau lebih populer dengan sebutan karya tulis, adalah karya ilmiah berisi ringkasan atau resume dari suatu mata kuliah tertentu atau ringkasan dari suatu ceramah yang diberikan oleh dosen kepada mahasiswanya. Tujuan pembuatan paper ini adalah melatih mahasiswa untuk mengambil intisari dari mata kuliah atau ceramah yang diajarkan oleh dosen, penulisan paper ini agak di perdalam dengan beberapa sebab antara lain, Bab I Pendahuluan , Bab II Pemaparan Data, Bab III Pembahasan atau Analisisdan Bab IV Penutup yang terdiri dari kesimpulan dan saran.


1.2 Pra Skripsi
Pra Skripsi adalah karya tulis ilmiah pendidikan yang digunakan sebagai persyaratan mendapatka gelar sarjana muda. Karya ilmiah ini disyaratkan bagi mahasiswa pada jenja0ng akademik atau setingkat diploma 3 ( D-3) .
Format tulisannya terdiri dari Bab I Pendahuluan (latar belakang pemikiran, permasalahan, tujuan penelitian atau manfaat penelitian dan metode penelitian). Bab II gambaran umum ( menceritakan keadaan di lokasi penelitian yang dikaitkan dengan permasalahan penelitian, Bab III deskripsi data ( memaparkan data yang diperoleh dari lokasi penelitian). Bab IV analisis (pembahasan data untuk menjawab masalah penelitian). Bab V penutup ( kesimpulan penelitian dan saran )
1.3 Skripsi
Skripsi adalah karya tulis ilmiah yang mengemukakan pendapat penulis berdasarkan pendapat orang lain. Pendapat yang diajukan harus didukung oleh data dan fakta- fakta empiris-objektif baik berdasarkan peneliian langsung (observasi lapangan ) maupun penelitian tidak langsung ( study kepustakaan) skripsi ditulis sebagai syarat mendapatkan gelar sarjana S1. Pembahasan dalam skripsi harus dilakukan mengikuti alur pemikiran ilmiah yaitu logis dan emperis.
1.4 Thesis
Thesis adalah suatu karya ilmiah yang sifatnya lebih mendalam dari pada skripsi, thesis merupakan syarat untuk mendapatkan gelar magister (S-2). Penulisan thesis bertujuan mensinthesikan ilmu yng diperoleh dari perguruan tinggi guna mempeluas khazanah ilmu yang telah didapatkan dari bangku kuliah master, khazanah ini terutama berupa temuan-temuan baru dari hasil suatu penelitian secara mendalam tentang suatu hal yangmenjadi tema thesis tersebut.
1.5 Disertasi
Disertasi adalah suatu karya tulis ilmiah yang mengemukakan suatu dalil yang dapat dibuktikan oleh penulis berdasarkan data dan fakta akurat dengan analisis terinci. Dalil yang dikemukakan biasanya dipertahankan oleh penulisnya dari sanggahan-sanggahan senat guru besar atau penguji pada sutu perguruan tinggi, desertasi berisi tentang hasil penemuan-penemuan penulis dengan menggunakan penelitian yang lebih mendalam terhadap suatu hal yang dijadikan tema dari desertasi tersebut, penemuan tersebut bersifat orisinil dari penulis sendiri, penulis desertasi berhak menyandang gelar Doktor.
2.4 Bahasa Karya Ilmiah
Karya tulis ilmiah harus menggunakan bahasa ilmiah, yakni bahasa resmi yang digunakan dalam bidang keilmuan. Bahasa keilmuan tentu bukan bahasa pergaulan sehari-hari atau bahasa populer yang disajikan di berbagai media. Karena karya ilmiah terbatas pembaca dan medianya, maka bahasa yang digunakannya lebih terbatas pula, mungkin hanya dipahami oleh mereka yang memiliki bidang keilmuan yang sama.
Secara umum, bahasa ilmiah adalah bahasa Indonesia yang baku (resmi) dan mengandung hal-hal teknis yang sesuai dengan bidang keilmuannya. Bahasa yang demikian memiliki karakteristik-karakteristik berikut.
a) kencedekiaan.
Bahasa karya ilmiah harus mengandung sebuah bidang keilmuan (cendekia) melalui pertanyaan yang tepat.
b) lugas dan jelas
Bahasa karya tulis ilmiah harus disajikan dalam bahasa yang memiliki makna yang jelas, tidak bertele-tele dan tidak bermakna ganda. Bahasa yang digunakan harus pasti dan memberikan kepastian kepada pembaca.
c) formal dan objektif
Bahasa karya tulis ilmiah harus disajikan secara formal, baik dalam hal penggunaan kosakata, diksi, kalimat, dan sistem ejaaan yang digunakan. Objektif berarti menyajikan fakta dalam bahasa yang langsung dan tidak berpihak kepada siapapun.
d) Ringkas dan padat
Bahasa karya tulis ilmiah harus disajikan secara tingkas, langsung pada sasaran yang dimaksud, dan padat secara isi. Dalam karya tulis ilmiah panjang uraian tidak menentukan baik-buruknya sebuah karya tulis. Oleh karena itu, bahasa yang disajikan harus bahasa yang ringkas dan padat.
e) Konsisten
Bahasa yang konsisten adalah bahasa yang stabil dan mapan dipakai penulis, terutama dalam hal istilah atau penggunaan diksi. Konsistensi isilah dan diksi penting dalam karya ilmiah.
Aspek bahasa yang juga harus diperhatikan dalam penulisan karya ilmiah adalah terdapat berbagai kesalahan yang dilakukan, misalnya kesalahan penalaran atau logika yang tercermin dalam kalimat dan isi, kesalahan pemakaian dan penulisan kata (diksi), kesalahan dalam penyusunan kalimat dan kesalahan dalam pemakaian ejaan dan tanda baca. Kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut tentu harus dihindari mengingat akan berpengaruh terhadap isi karya itu dipahami para pembacanya. Kesalahan penalaran dan logika bisanya terjadi karena kurang sistematisnya atau kurang jelasnya informasi yang disampaikan dalam kalimat dan teks tersebut.
2.5 Ciri-ciri Karya Ilmiah
1. Mendalam/Tuntas,
segi-segi masalah dikupas secara mendalam atau masalah dibahas sampai ke akar-akarnya; membicarakan topik secara mendetil.
Bagaimana agar dapat dibahas dengan tuntas?
• jangan memilih masalah/topik yang terlalu luas
• Mengambil sampel yang proposional
• Melengkapi data literatur sebagai sumber rujukan
2. Objektif
keterangan dikemukakan apa adanya sesuai dengan data dan fakta yang diperoleh;
Keobjektifan karya ilmiah dapat dicapai dengan
• Menggunakan data literatur dan data lapangan yang memadai (datanya harus representatif)
• Tidak memanipulasi data
3. Sistematis
uraian disusun menurut pola tertentu sehingga jelas urutan dan kaitan antara unsur-unsur tulisan (berkesinambungan, berurutan, berkaitan)
4. Cermat
berupaya menghindari kesalahan/kekeliruan
5. Lugas
artinya pembicaraan langsung pada persoalan yang dikaji
tanpa basa-basi.
6. Tidak emosional, artinya tanpa melibatkan perasaan
7. Berlaku umum (kesimpulan berlaku bagi semua populasi kajian) ---à kebenarannya dapat diuji

8. Logis,
segala keterangan yang disajikan memiliki dasar dan alasan yang masuk akal
9. bernas, artinya meskipun uraian itu singkat, isinya padat.
10. Jelas, keterangan yang dikemukakan dapat mengungkap makna secara jernih sehingga mudah dipahami pembaca
11. Terbuka, tidak menutup kemungkinan adanya pendapat baru
12. bahasa baku, tepat, ringkas, dan jelas
Contoh bahasa dalam karya ilmiah
Pohon itu ditanam sedalam ½ meter
Berat maksimal yang diperbolehkan 5 ton
Tiang yang harus disediakan sangat banyak
Volume pekerjaan per jam sangat padat
mahasiswa itu sangat pandai à baku/tidak kuantitatif
2.6 Langkah – langkah Penyusunan Karya Ilmiah
Maxine Hairston (1986: 6) menyebutkan bahwa tulisan yang baik itu harus bersifat signifikan, jernih, ekonomis, bersifat membangun, dan gramatik (good writing is significant, clear, unifiel, economical, developed, and grammatical). Tentu ini syarat umum dalam sebuah tulisan, mengingat tulisan itu harus dibaca orang. Tulisan memang harus berkaitan (signifikan) dengan suatu permasalahan yang menarik. Kalau tidak, tulisan tersebut tidak akan dibaca. Tulisan juga harus jernis, tidak tendensius, karena unsur subjektif tidak terlalu disenangi para pembaca. Tulisan juga harus ekonomis agar pembaca tidak jenuh saat membaca. Tulisan pun harus bertatabahasa karena itu mencerminkan logika bahasa yang dipakai penulis.
Untuk mendapatkan tulisan yang baik, diperlukan strategi dan langkah-langkah penulisan karya ilmiah secara sistematis. David Nunan (1991) dalam Syihabuddin (2006) merinci tahapan dalam menulis, yakni tahap prapenulisan, tahap penulisan dan tahap revisi atau perbaikan tulisan. Kegiatan-kegiatan ini untuk menunjukkan bahwa menulis membutuhkan proses yang berkesinambungan. Pada tahap prapenulisan, kita harus menyiapkan beberapa hal yang mendukung terciptanya tulisan, pada tahap penulisan penulis berfokus pada hasil berupa draf tulisan, dan pada saat pascapenulisan fokus penulis diarahkan pada perbaikan tulisan.
McCrimmon (1984:10) menjelaskan bahwa proses menulis terdiri atas tiga tahap, yakni perencanaan, membuat draf, dan merevisi. Perencaan berkait erat dengan bagaimana kita memulai menulis. Demikian pula, bagaimana kita menggunakan memori untuk kepentingan menulis. Membuat draf artinya membuat garisbesar tulisan. Merevisi artinya
meneliti kembali tulisan agar tidak mengandung kesalahan yang membuat tulisan itu tidak baik.
Dalam hal gagasan, DePorter (1999:181) menyebutkan bahwa pengelompokkan (clustering) adalah salah satu cara memilah gagasan-gagasan dan menuangkannya ke atas kertas secepatnya, tanpa pertimbangan. Hal ini dilakukan dengan beberapa tahap:
1. Melihat gagasan dan membuat kaitan antara gagasan.
2. Mengembangkan gagasan yang telah dikemukakan.
3. Menelusuri jalan pikiran yang ditempuh otak agar mencapai suatu konsep.
4. Bekerja secara alamiah dengan gagasan-gagasan tanpa penyuntingan atau pertimbangan.
5. Memvisualisasikan hal-hal khusus dan mengingatnya kembali dengan mudah.
6. Mengalami desakan kuat untuk menulis.

Dalam rangka menghindari hambatan-hambatan yang dialami saat menulis, DePorter (1999:187) memberikan kiat-kiat, yakni:
1. pilihlah suatu topik
2. gunakan timer untuk jangka waktu tertentu.
3. Mulailah menulis secara kontinu walaupun apa yang Anda tulis adalah ―Aku tak tahu apa yang harus kutulis‖.
4. Saat timer berjalan, hindari:

Pengumpulan gagasan
Pangaturan kalimat
Pemeriksaan tata bahasa
Pengulangan kembali
Mencoret atau menghapus sesuatu
5. Teruskan hingga waktu habis dan itulah saatnya berhenti.
Proses menulis tidak selalu mengikuti panduan di atas, adakalanya seseorang memiliki cara atau strategi tertentu. Hal in dapat dibenarkan sepanjang tujuannya sama menghasilkan tulisan yang baik. Banyak penulis yang tidak mau terikat oleh panduan-panduan yang dianggapnya membelenggu. Sebagai sebuah proses kreatif menulis memang tidak selalu dapat diatur dan diurutkan berdasarkan hal-hal di atas, namun juga terdapat spontanitas dan improvisasi yang memiliki posisi penting dalam kreatif menulis. Namun demikian, setiap gagasan atau ide tidak selalu mudah diingat oleh penulis. Oleh karena itu penulis dengan gaya yang dimilikinya tetap harus mencatat ide-ide itu supaya tidak lupa. Cara yang paling mudah dilakukan adalah dengan membuat rancangan tulisan atau membuat peta pikiran dari calon tulisan yang hendak kita buat. Mungkin rancangan dan peta pikiran
tersebut tidak harus formal dan lengkap, hal ini sekadar membantu agar gagasan tidak menguap dan siap dirangkai pada saat menulis.
2.7 Metode Pendekatan dalam Penulisan Karya Ilmiah
Metode Rasional
• Data sekunder
• Pola berpikir deduktif
Metode Empiris
• Data primer
• Pola berpikir induktif
a. Pendekatan rasional (deduktif à data sekunder) mengemukakan keterangan-keterangan berdasarkan teori atau pendapat yang telah ditemukan sebelumnya (rujukan) à melalui proses penalaran
Contoh : mengkaji perkembangan teknologi pangan
Menelusuri sejarah terjadinya bumi
b. Pendekatan empiris (induktif à data primer) mengemukakan fakta-fakta berdasarkan hasil penelitian lapangan (mengadakan angket, wawancara, tinjauan lapangan, partisipasi kerja lapangan atau kerja praktik, percobaan) à mengolah data-data tersebut baru disimpulkan (simpulan di akhir)